Development of Modern Mathematics

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To select points on the time scale of human events and to designate the intervals thereby demarcated as "era" is always an arbitrary act. Inevitably, it is influenced by the point of view, the experience, and the purposes of the selector. In particular, any designation of a specific date as marking the commencement of the "modern era" in math would be affected by the math interests of the designator. Even though one were a "universalist" in maths, possessing wide knowledge of all its branches, his judgment in this  regard might not find acceptance.

            Probably one of the last mathematicians who could be termed a universalist was the late John von Neumann who expressed the view that "the calculus was the first  achievement of modern maths" - a judgment not many would be likely to accept. Certainly, the two centuries following the formulations of the calculus by Newton and Leibnitz constituted a period of high productivity in math research. But it was a period characterized by the rough methods of the pioneer and seemingly imbued with the philosophy (attribute to d"Alembert), "Forge ahead, and faith will come to you".

            Not until the nineteenth century do we find the inception of those features that appear to distinguish modern maths from its progenitors of the preceding two centuries. In the works of Cauchy and other early-nineteenth-century mathematicians the attention paid to greater rigour   points to a change in the philosophy underlying math research. And not until the latter part of the nineteenth century do we find clearly exhibited those characteristics that appear to distinguish modern math from earlier forms of the science. It would seem reasonable, therefore, to say the by "modern maths" is meant the maths of, roughly, the 19th century. More important than dates, however, are the general characteristics of modern maths.

General Characteristics of Math in the Modern Era

            A New Point of View. A prominent feature of modern math - one that serves to distinguish it from the maths of earlier eras - is a point of view,  a new conception of the nature of maths. From this point of view, maths is seen not as a description of an external world of reality, not merely as tool for studying such a world, but rather as a science in its own right. No longer simply a servant of the natural sciences, maths has achieved a status seemingly independent of the natural sciences while still lending aid to the latter. Having moved from its earlier dependence n natural phenomena for new ideas from within itself.

            The achievement of such a status was not, of course, the result of determination on the part of particular individuals to declare the independence of maths from natural phenomena. Rather it was the result of a natural evolution one can detect as long ago as Babylonian times, when meager attempts as what we would call "number theory" were made by the temple scribes. When sufficiently developed, maths breeds a fascination its devotees find irresistible. No, doubt, during the Sumerian-Babylonian era the needs of a fast-developing society, requiring quicker aids to computation, Iay at the root of the development of multiplication tables, tables of reciprocals, and the like. But inevitably certain curious aspects of numbers, when so manipulated and tabulated, evinced themselves and inculcated in the observer a desire to know "why".

            The "why" that probably had most to do with development of the new viewpoint in modern math was a question related to the parallel axiom of Euclid's geometry. As is well known, the question whether the addition of this axiom to Euclid's other postulates was necessary stimulated a great deal of research from the third century B.C. t the time of its solution in the non-Euclidean geometries of the nineteenth century.

            Parallel with these developments were the generalizations of number being invented by the algebraists. Prominent among the proponents of such generalizations were Hamilton and Grassmann, who realized that the axiomatic method could be applied just as effectively to algebra as to geometry. Much as Lobahevsky and Bolyai, in order to found their non-Euclidean geometry, substituted for the parallel axiom a statement contradicting it, so Hamilton finally decided to defy the commutative "low" of algebra for multiplication. Certainly, such work contributed to the new point of view especially when it became apparent that the new types of non-commutative systems had applications in the physical sciences.

            By the end of the nineteenth century the arbitrary character of any system of  algebra or geometry, whether it was a classical form or one of the newly invented types, was becoming evident to the math world. And when classical geometry and algebra lost their previously assumed property of "necessity", this loss could not help but create the new point of view. In maths the practical result was the flowering of the modern form of the axiomatic method, which has subsequently proved so important for research and is certainly to be regarded as one of the major achievements of the nineteenth century.

            A Higher Level of Abstraction. A natural concomitant of the new form of the axiomatic methods was the greater abstraction that characterizes modern math. An important feature of axiomatic method in its modern form is its treatment of basic terms as undefined; thus, in geometry, instead of trying to give a spurious definition of "point" as in Euclid, one usually attributes to the term no meaning except what may be implied by the axioms. This attributes to the term no meaning except what may be implied by the axioms. This attitude was, perhaps, a result of  (1) the emergence of models in both algebra and geometry in which the basic terms no longer had their usual intuitive meaning - as, for , instance, geometries in which the "point" were objects totally unlike the classical conception - and (2) the development of the rigorous math (as opposed to the dictionary) type of definition, which forced the realization that continual definition could lead only to endless regression or to a vicious circle;  one cannot give explicit definition of every basic concept of an axiomatic system. An important by product of this treatment is that one can interpret the undefined terms in any concrete way he pleased so long as the axioms turn out to be true in the interpretation;  one then all theorems of the theory at his disposal in the new interpretation.

            One may protest that abstractness is not peculiar to modern maths. Certainly, the geometry of Euclid was a grand abstraction from physical space. But the type of abstraction to be found in modern maths is of an even higher order. Modern maths is more concerned with a conceptual world that is at least one stage removed from concepts that are derived directly from sense perceptions; the objects, relation, and operations with which it deals are already themselves abstractions. It is this kind of abstractness that characterizes modern maths.  Greater Rigour; "Self-suffiiency" . Another aspect of modern maths, helping to distinguish it from the maths of earlier eras, is the greater demand for rig our in the demonstrations of proofs for theorems and the validation of proposed  theories. Unquestionably, the development of the modern axiomatic method contributed to this since the method made more precise the assumptions underlying a proof and allowed less play to vague intuition (except as an aid to discovery). But the contributions of the nineteenth century to such topics as the theory of limits, the real number system, foundations of geometry, the extensions of the notion of "number" in algebra, and symbolic logic made possible a precision that was formerly unattainable. It seemed no longer necessary to appeal to "common sense" or to notions generally accepted but not well defined. And this helped tremendously to foster in the math community of the late nineteenth century a feeling of self-sufficiency, - for maths came to be independent of the physical world for its theoretical justification. It had laid down its own foundations.           

Scientists decided to greet the aliens

After decades of fruitless searching for extraterrestrial signals, scientists decided that it was time to try something different. To say "hello" first.

A new organization called METI (ie, Messaging Extra Terrestrial Intelligence, sending messages of extraterrestrial intelligence) is planning to send signals to distant planets, and not wait until someone sends them to the side of the Earth.

By 2018, the project is going to send a message by radio and laser rocky planets around Proxima Centauri, the closest star to our system, and then to more distant worlds, being in hundreds or thousands of light-years.

This will be the first attempt to send a powerful humanity, repeated and intentional signals into space, and to the same stars for months or even years.

"If we want to start a conversation that will last for many generations, we must learn to comprehend the information and share it", - says Douglas Vakoch, president of the METI, formerly engaged in interstellar messages in SETI.

At the moment, part of the problem lies in how to create the perfect message to say "Hello." Of course, the project has caused a lot of criticism. Some ask, and if hostile aliens, do we need to let them know where we are? For example, the science fiction author David Brin and renowned physicist Stephen Hawking said that we should not draw attention to himself.

Other experts note that we should wait until we talk better, and then employ properly organized international groups with international consultations. "Babbling babies do not always look good when adults talk - says Andrew Frenknoy, head of the department of astronomy at the College Foothill. - Children become adults when learning and listening, so why is not do they? ". However, he also said: "If someone could send a message, decide that it is better just to take them, space would indeed be a very quiet place."

From Popular Mechanics

Click Fraud the headache for AdSense.

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Click Fraud the headache for AdSense. Fraudulent clicks in advertising.

Click fraud (from the English click fraud -. Scam press) - is kind of online fraud, based on the fraudulent (false ones) click advertising. Such clicks can be done in in manual mode (the attacker without the help improvised, clicks on advertising), and automatic (Clicks by using automated GOVERNMENTAL scripts or programs). On assurances harsh of analysts, the share of fraudulent clicks is about 10-15% of all clicks on the advertising market. However, not all false Clicks can be recorded, and therefore their real share a lot more. Click fraud - a real headache for Search Engines and individual PPC-affiliate.

Now let's look at examples of how to cheat clicks. It is carried out in real life. Let's say you own ports thawed selling elephants. Business should be lifted, and you solved Eat to put a portion of their income on advertising. You register AdSense or Yandex and thus create an ad as to on-demand "to buy an elephant," the search engine gave out links to your store. Of course, it costs money, so you refill your account for a certain amount that is consumed when the user clicks on your ad (one click on ad costs differently from $ 0.1 and above).

Everything sound perfect: search engine advertising provided, users on it transferred go - but there it was! Competitors in elephants trade saw your new ad and decided to thoroughly spoil your advertising campaign. In the simplest case, they will charge his subordinates to see all advertisements that search engines give out on request "to buy an elephant" and the click on the ads that lead to your shop elephants. Of course, will not buy anything. Their goal - to reduce Budget your advertising campaign. After several days of false Clicks your ad budget significantly reduced or even dry up, and competitors will jump from happiness. If your competitors have a few people in subjection, they will hire a programmer, so he wrote tools to automatically clicks advertising. Using this utility will also reduce your budget. Naturally, this practice is deceptive and non-honest with you.

Consider another example of the click fraud. Basil attacker wants to earn more money. He decided to illegally earn on PPC-affiliate (Pay-per-Click - affiliate programs that pay the site owner for that users click through advertisements on the site). Basil register your site in the corresponding guide affiliate and advertiser finds that offers to place an advertisement on Basil resource. Farther Vasily himself begins Clicks ads from his own site (changing the IP and other environment variables). This brings him income, while the advertiser receives zero efficiency of their advertising.

SIGNS of Click fraud

Perhaps buying advertising on the Internet, now you start to fear of clicks fraud and think about how to track fraudulent clicks. There are several ways to deal with click fraud, but first let's look at its main signs.

1. If the advertising clicks have been generated with the same IP-address, it should direct to the suspicion that there is something wrong.
It is estimated that more than ten clicks on advertising from one IP - it is a clear sign of click fraud.
2. If a visitor who went to your site to sell elephants, immediately left him, then there are two possibilities: or you made a disgusting site, or does the visitor was not interested in buying an elephant, just wanted to reset your advertising budget.

3. If a visitor who went to your site, does not produce no action (do not move the mouse, not scrolls pages, do not click on the links), here also there are two options: visitor - a clear zombie or there has not been without the use tion of fraudulent software for click fraud.
4. If the number of clicks to your website increase, and the level of conversion has decreased, it can also talk about the click-Fraud. Conversion shows the effectiveness of advertising on the site Network. It is calculated as follows: count the number of visitors who, after entering the site made any active action (for example, still bought the elephant) and divide it by the total number of visitors to the site, and then multiply the result by 100. As a result, we get a figure ad conversion percentage.
5. No session in a cookie is also considered a sign of click fraud, fraudulent because the program does not usually use the session.

FIGHTING click fraud: SPYBOX

So we looked at the basic signs of cheating clicks. Now let's move on to specific methods for controlling click-fraud. Naturally, the search engine / advertising platform where you have registered, will provide an abstract Statistics. But we will look at products from third-party development team, as they are 100% interested in that mediated lead us all false clicks (still, because they get paid for it). The first in our anti click fraoud solutions list is a service under called SpyBox. In fact, this full service web analytics which will help you increase the number of sales, corrected the behavior of visitors to increase the effectiveness of advertising campaigns, and to do what most of us are interested in, - Identify fraudulent activities on the site. Works service quite simple: you register it and receive special tracking HTML-code, which must be installed at the desired page you before the tag . The code is similar to the following (in each case it will be a little different):

After installing the code you can follow the users action on your website as if it works special video that records and analyzes all. Before stages a wide range of functions to view reports: map attention of users of the site, the page scroll map, map of mouse movements and conversion statistics. Through all of these functions you can with high probability determine what visitors do on your site. Obviously,that if too many conversions were made from the same IP and while on the page was not made almost no action (This can be determined by page scrolling the map, as well as outline map mouse movements), then there is clearly not done no intruders. However, there have SpyBox and minuses: the product is not distributed for free (worth about 1,000 rubles a month), and only free version valid five days (in truth, to determine performed if the site cheat clicks, in some cases the five days would be enough.

ADWATCHER

SpyBox, of course, useful, but rather cumbersome. What to do if you only need to look at the statistics clicks and, perhaps, even the general statistics on the action? In this case it is better to turn to Adwatcher service that offers are not as detailed reports as SpyBox, but only the most relevant information. It also allows you to view free demo account on the ratio of unique clicks (Unique IP) and the total number of clicks (by the way, if they about the same, then it suggests that visitors pro who went to your site, do not commit almost no action). A more detailed report (for user actions) available 30-day trial version. Interestingly, the service is also provides a so-called reports of fraud reports, which just on click fraud detection. To Generate a report, you must create a new campaign tracking click fraud, to set some of its parameters (name of the project, tracking method) and paste it into the appropriate page the code below:

Following these simple manipulations campaign will work,and you can view reports on the generation of fake clicksits pages. The full version will cost you Adwatcher 30$.

Click fraud is punishable!

If your friend is involved in click fraud and Peter proved that clicks for him is nothing, do not believe this and always try to dissuade your friend from taking such a dirty business. Click fraud is punishable, and how! In 2003 he was arrested by programmer Michael Anthony Bradley, which extorted from Google 150 thousand dollars. Michael said that created a program that can go on advertisements, and to place it under the name Google Clique on the Internet, if Google is a great company will not give him the required amount. Naturally, the Google did not like it, and it quickly cooked up the case against Michael. However, unlucky clickfrauder was lucky, because as an institution it suddenly matter closed. Another incident involving click fraud, there was in 2009. Microsoft has accused some of Gordon Lam, Syuen Melanie and Eric Lam of fraud committed by wrapping advertising clicks inside the Microsoft platform. Such damage was estimated at 750 thousand dollars. For the click fraud is still possible to get to the head. Although in Russia clickfrauders country had never been arrested, remember that it can happen at any time.

Conclusion

With clickfrauders fight is not easy, because they are constantly committed perfections of their methods sklikivaniya (although there are still the person who makes all handles). To protect against such scam the search engines and other sites providing lyayut end user quite powerful analytic, with which you can suppress any click fraud on the vine. Of course, all clickfrauders and not track All intruders are not caught, but with the help of services, discussed in the article, you'll be able to catch quite large part clickfrauders and provide advertising platform report their actions to recover their money :).

Berzelius, Selenium and Silicon

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Jons Jakob Berzelius was probably the best experimental chemists of his generation and, given the crudeness of the laboratory equipment, maybe the best of all time. Unlike Lavoisier, who could afford to by the best laboratory equipment available, Berzelius worked with minimal equipment in very plain surrounings. One of Berzelius's students described the Swedish chemists's workplace: "The laboratory consisted of two ordinary rooms with the very simplest arrangements: there were neither furnaces nor hoods, neither water system not gas. Against the walls stood some closets with the chemicals, in the middle the mercury trough and the blast lamp table. Against the walls stood some closets with the chemicals, in the middle  the mercury trough and the blast lamp table. Beside this was the sink consisting of a stone water holder with a stopcock and a pot standing under it. Next door in the kitchen stood a small heating furnace".

In these simple facilities Berzelius performed more than 2000 experiments over a 10-year period to determine accurate atomic masses for the 50 elements then known. Berzelius made many contributions to chemisty. He also discovered the elements cerium, thorium, selenium and silicon are particularly important in today's world. Berzelius discovered selenium in 1817 in connection with his studies of sulfuric acid. In these simple facilities Berzelius performed more than 2000 experiments over a 10-year period to determine accurate atomic masses for the 50 elements then known. Berzelius made many  ontributions to chemisty. He also discovered the elements cerium, thorium, selenium and silicon аre particularly important in today's world. Berzelius discovered selenium in 1817 in connection with his studies of sulfuric acid.

For years selenium's toxicity has been known, but only recently have we become aware that it may have a positive effect on human health. Studies have shown that trace amounts of seleniumin the diet may protect people from heart disease and cancer. One study based on data from 27 countries showed an inverse relationship between the cancer death rate and the selenium content of soil in a particualr region (low cancer death rate in areas with high selenium content). Another research paper reported an inverse relationship between the selenium content of the blood and the incidence of breast canser in women. Selemium is also found in the heart muscle and may play an important role in proper heart function. Silicon is the secon most abundant element in the eath's crust, exceeded only by oxygen. Berzelius prepared silicon in its pure form in 1824 by heating silicon tetrafluoride (SiF4) with potassim metal. Today, silicon forms the basis for the modern microelectronics industry centered near San Francisco in a place that has come to be known as "Silicon Valley". 

The technology of the silicon chip with its printed circuits has transformed computer from room-size monsters with thousand of unreliable vacuum tubes to desktop and notebook-size units with troube-free "solid-state" circuitry. 

Observation, Theories, and the Planets

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Human have always been fascinated by the heavens, by the behaviour of the sun by day and the stars by night. Although more accurately measured now becasue of precise instruments the basic observations of these events have remained the same over the past 4000 years. However, our interpretation of the events have changed dramatically. For example, about 2000 в.с. the Egyptian postulated that the sun was a boat inhabitited by the god Ra, who daily sailed across the sky.

Over the years, patterns in the changes in the heavens were recognized and, through marvelous devices such as Stonehege in England, were connected to the season of the years. People also noted that seven objects seemed to move against the background of "fixed stars". These objects, actually the sun, the moon, and the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, were called the "wanderers". The planets appeared to move from the west to east, except Mars, which seemsed to slow down and even move backwards for a few weeks. One of the first explanations for these observations came from Eudoxus, born in 400 в.с. He imagined the earth as fixed, with the planets attached to a nested set of transparent spheres that moved at different rates around the earth. The stars were attached to the outermost sphere. This model, although clever, still did not account for the strange behaviour of Mars. Five hundred years later, Ptolemy, a Greek scholar, worked our a plan more complex than that of Eudoxus, in which the planets were attached to the edges of spheres that "rolled around" the spheres of Eudoxus. This model accounted for the behaviour of all the planets, including the apparent reversals in the motion of the Mars. Because of human prejudice that the earth should be the center of universe, Ptolemy's model was assumed to be correct for more that a thousand years, and its wide acceptance actually inhibited the advancement of astronomy. Finally, in 1543, a Polish cleric, Nicholas Copernicus, postulated that the earth was only one of the planets, all of which revolved around the sun. This "demotion" of the earth's status produced violent opposition to the new model, and in fact, Copernicus's writings were "corrected" by religious officials before scholars were allowed to them.

The Copernican theory persisted and was finally given a solid mathematical base by Johannes Kepler. Kepler postulated elliptical rather then circular orbits for the planets in order to account more completely for their observed motions. Kepler's hypotheses were in turn further refined 36 years after his death by Isaac Newton, who recognized that the concept of gravitation could account for the positions and motions of the planets. However, even the brilliant models of Newton were found incomplete by Albert Einstein, who showed that Newton's mechanics was a special case of a much more general model. Thus the same basic observations were made for severl thousand years, but the explanations - the models - have changed remarkably from the Egyptians' boat of Ra to Einstain's relativity.

Our models will inevitably change, and we should expect them to do so. They can help us make scientific progress, or they can inhibit progress if we become too attached to them. Although the fundamental facts of chemistry will remain the same.

Letter from professor of astrophysics CERN about wormholes

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I want to share here with letter of my friend who is experimental physicist. I do not mention his name here because he is well known scientist around the world but I found his words are very interestig in nowadays. We forget about cosmology. But cosmology keeps many unsolved problem and discovery.

The letter

I am an experimental and not a theoretical physicist. Therefore I am not an authority on wormholes. But a few comments may be in order. What must be distinguished is the mathematical formulation of wormholes in the context of General Relativity, and the use of wormholes in Science Fiction. Wormholes are possible solutions of Einstein's equations of General Relativity. They connect different points in space and time. There seems agreement that such solutions exist, there are many papers by respected authors which give details about the properties of wormholes. But for wormholes to exist for longer times, rather strange assumptions about the quantum nature of space and time must be ade which are not part of General Relativity (so far, all attempts to unite General Relativity with Quantum Theory in the context of a larger, unified, theory failed). Even if mathematically stable wormholes could be shown to exist, then remains still the question whether they are realized in nature. Why? We must make a difference between nature and the mathematica which we use to describe nature. The mathematics helps us to describe nature, it makes nature "understandable" and "predictable". But it must always be kept in mind that the mathematics is only a model (think of a net that you throw on nature to "catch " it; think, for example, of "life"; you can understand life in terms of biology, in terms of philosophy, in terms of psychology, in terms of sociology, etc. --- these are all models, logically different from life itself) and not nature itself, therefore, it is possible that mathematics describes something that is not realized in nature. Many enthusiasts of mathematics ignore this difference.

As to Science Fiction, wormholes are used for travel in space faster than light and for making time travel, and also for travel from one Universe to another (mathematically, it is possible to have several Universes, usually called "parallel universes"; but there is no proof whatsoever that this is more than speculation). But this is all nice to read but has not scientific meaning.

There was much noise about our large particle colliders producing "black holes" which will grow and eat up our planet. This is nonsense, theoretically (because this would happen in a world with higher dimensions than three spatial dimensions and one time dimension that we have) and practically (because the bombardment with particle with much, much higher energy from outer space - the ultrahigh cosmic energy particles - which our planet suffers since billions of years, would have produced already many black holes which would have eaten us up. They did not because they were not produced.

The astronauts bombers

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The astronauts bombers from the Soviet Union were on the Moon - September 29, 2003

In read Americans did not land on the moon and the entire program "Apollo" is a hoax, which is to create to make great image of the US government. The lecturer showed an American movie, which debunks the legend of landing astronauts on the moon. American flag on the moon, where there is no atmosphere, flapping as if it blew air flow. Look at the photo, allegedly shot by astronauts, "Apollo 11". Armstrong and Aldrin - the same height, and the shadow of one of the astronauts and a half times longer than the other. Likely, they covered the top spotlight, and therefore turned the shadows of different lengths, both from the street lamp. And by the way, who shot this photo? After all, in the frame, both at once the astronaut.

Many technical and other inconsistencies: the image in the frame does not twitch, the shadow value does not coincide with the position of the sun, and so on. The lecturer argued that historical footage of astronauts walking on the moon were made in Hollywood, and the angle of light reflectors, which were refined parameters lzhedesanta were simply dropped from robotic probes. In the years 1969-1972 the Americans 7 times flew to the moon. Except for an emergency flight "Apollo 13" 6 expeditions were successful. Every time an astronaut remained in orbit, and two landed on the moon. Each stage of the flight recorded literally every minute, keep detailed records and logbooks. On earth brought more than 380 kg of lunar rocks, made 13 thousand pictures on the Moon installed a seismograph and other instruments held technology test lunomobil and self-propelled guns on the battery power. Moreover, the astronauts found and brought back to Earth with a camera probe visited the Moon for two years before human. In the laboratory, this camera were found terrestrial bacteria streptococci, surviving in open space. This finding was important for the understanding of the fundamental laws of survival and propagation of the living matter in the universe. In America the debate whether Americans walked on the moon. In principle, nothing surprising, because in Spain after the return of Columbus were also disputes that in the new ontinents he opened. Such disputes are inevitable as long as the new earth will not be easily accessible to everyone. But the moon is only a dozen people visited. Despite the fact that in the Soviet Union carried live coverage of the first walk on the moon Neil Armstrong, and our American scientists worked closely in the processing of the results of scientific expeditions "Apollo". The Soviet Union had a rich photo archive, which was drawn up on the results of several flight vehicles "Moon", as well as samples of the lunar soil. Thus, the Americans had to negotiate not only with Hollywood, but also with the USSR, to which competition could be the only argument in favor of a hoax. I should add that while hollywood did not even hear about computer graphics and simply did not have the technology to fool the world. As for the next astronaut Conrad, then, as explained to us in the Institute of Geochemistry and Analytical Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, where samples of lunar soil are studied as lunar regolith is a loose rock, the imprint should remain optional. On the moon there is no air, there's not dusty regolith and does not scatter to the sides, as on Earth, where he is under your feet immediately turns into swirling dust. And the flag behaved as befits him. Although there is no wind on the moon and can not be, any material (wires, cables, cords), which unfolded astronauts in low gravity under the influence of the imbalance of power a few seconds squirmed, and then froze. Finally, a strange static image because the astronauts did not hold the camera in your hands, as the operators of the earth, and set it on a tripod, screwed to the chest. Moonlight US program could not be a performance also because the very high price was paid for it. One of the crew of "Apollo" was lost during Earth's training, the crew of "Apollo-13" does not reach the moon and returned to Earth. Yes and cost NASA program "Apollo" in the amount of $ 25 billion were subjected repeatedly checking multiple audit committee. The version that the Americans did not fly to the moon - the sensation is not the first freshness. Now in America as brewer's yeast grows more exotic legend. It turns out (and there are documented), a man on the moon yet visited. But it was not the American people. A Soviet! The USSR sent astronauts to the Moon, to serve their many rovers and instruments. But the Soviet Union did not informed the world about these expeditions because they were astronauts bombers. back to them was not to on the Soviet homeland. American astronauts have seen if the moon skeletons of these nameless heroes. According to the explanation of specialists from the Institute of Biomedical Problems, Russian Academy of Sciences, which is ready to fly astronauts to the corpse in a spacesuit on the moon will be about the same changes as the old canning jar. On the Moon there is no bacterial decay, so the astronaut at all desire can not turn into a skeleton.

Travel through time

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Travel through time has long worried about the minds of people. For example, the movie "The Butterfly Effect" or "Back to the Future" - is only a few examples of embodiment of the idea of movement in time in world cinema.The interest in this issue and enhance the world's problems relating to morality and ethics. For example, someone might think, if you go back in time and kill Hitler, whether the world will change for the better? Can we move into the future for personal gain and to win on the stock exchange? Very often in social media published photos and videos of witnesses who allegedly faced with "strangers" of the parallel worlds. In addition, one can often hear the stories of eyewitnesses who have visited in the past or the future. All this information can be regarded as conclusive evidence of the existence of other worlds. Time travel today is no longer considered to be such a mysterious phenomenon. If you take pure theory, you need to accelerate to superluminal speed and ...you in the future. However, no one knows how to accelerate to the point, and go back - a big problem. Return violates all cause-effect relationships. According to the famous English mathematician and theoretical physicist Stephen Hawking, "time travel is possible, but useless.

Time travel today is no longer considered to be such a mysterious phenomenon. If you take pure theory, you need to accelerate to superluminal speed and ... you in the future. However, no one knows how to accelerate to the point, and go back - a big problem. Return violates all cause-effect relationships. According to the famous English mathematician and theoretical physicist Stephen Hawking, "time travel is possible, but useless." 

Teleportation - this is an unusual physical phenomenon that can carry an object or person at different distances, even through walls.

Recently, scientists began to study this phenomenon closely, which may help to understand the process of time travel. The first person who coined the word teleportation, was an American researcher "unknown" parapsychologist Charles Fort. He was able to describe the many cases where people are mysteriously disappearing from one place and appear suddenly in another: it could be a city or even a country. And this is without a visible manifestation of physical force or any equipment. More than a hundred years to collect information about people's teleportation. In the archival documents written official cases of missing persons and their appearance in other places. To deny these facts in modern science there is no reason. Scientists believe that it is necessary thoroughly to start the study of this paranormal phenomenon.

Examples of teleportation

The first officially recorded case of teleportation was published in late 1593 a researcher M. Jessup. He described how the Philippine soldiers, carrying guard duty at the palace of the governor in Manila, suddenly appeared in Mexico City. How he got there, no one could understand. Local authorities took a frightened military weapons and sent to prison. Only 5 months later the sudden disappearance of witnesses, who arrived from the Philippines to Mexico, were able to confirm the mystical story of a soldier. Similar cases have been seen with the animals. So, in 1579 g in an American city from the sky rained white mice. Once in the lake, they were in a panic trying to get to shore, drowning each other. In mid-January 1877 in Memphis, people were shocked by the events. Nobody could get out of their homes because of the sky, for three hours, half-meter snake fell. But there are more incredible incidents of teleportation. In 1912, an American family bought a house and came to see it. The girl ran to the threshold of the house, and instantly disappeared, leading the mother into confusion. However, after a few seconds she stood on the balcony of the second floor.

In January 1976, a young man from Argentina, Carlos Diaz after a day went home. Along the way he became ill. The man sat down on the lawn near the house, and woke up almost 800 kilometers from the place where he was staying - on the outskirts of Buenos Aires. Local passersby had a guy help and was taken to the nearest hospital. Discovered by teleportation Charles Fort has listed so-called "side effects" phenomena. All the people, when you move, felt bad: dizziness, nausea, fatigue and even fainting.

In 1969, the American ufologist John Keel has described an interesting case, which occurred with the couple and their car. They left the Argentine town Chasmokus. In front of them was driving the car of their friends. Everyone had to get to the settlement cornstarch (about 150 miles from Chasmokusa). When the first car arrived at their destination, it was found that there is a second car. Friends of the couple waited for a couple of hours, but did not wait - they simply disappeared. Two days later the couple Vidal called friends of the Consulate of Mexico, which is more than 4 thousand kilometers from their home. Later, the couple said that on the way they stalled car, and they stopped. Suddenly, everything enveloped thick gray mist, and it was bad. When the fog cleared, the pair regained consciousness. Coming out of the car, they saw that they are absolutely in another territory, and local residents told them that this is Mexico.

On the Belarusian Air Force Base in 1982 controllers' radar screens right during the flight disappeared military plane. After some time, according to the calculations of experts, the fuel in the tanks of a fighter is over. Started search operations of the missing military pilot, but without results. The next day everyone was shocked when the runway has landed a missing fighter and the pilot stated that the flight lasted for him at the scheduled time - 12 minutes. Many ufologists and parapsychologists is a description of human teleportation aliens with spaceships. Stolen vehicles are humanoids, and after their return to the place. Sometimes cases are described as extraterrestrials Refundable thousands of kilometers from the place of primary teleportation. According to some scientists, it is definitely a UFO refers to moving through time.

Parallel worlds in the Universe

Today, the number of cases has not decreased travel time. Press describes cases that documented research staff. For example, the Bermuda Triangle. All the disappearance of the victim in a state of trance or shock, sometimes there is a temporary amnesia. Perhaps these people really were in another dimension. The famous German mathematician Hermann Minkowski put forward the theory that space and time make up a huge amount of other worlds, where a single point in time - a separate reality that does not disappear. Russian investigator of anomalous phenomena Igor G. Nikolaev believes that our universe is like a big box in which many departments, interconnected webs. In each department its components and objects, but they are similar. The world in which we live, is next to the other worlds similar to ours. And when the worlds are in close contact with each other - there is transfer or teleportation. Items from one small drawer are poured into another shake or vibrate at a big box - the universe.

Biohazard. Military Medicine in the USSR

Thinking about computer virus and hacker attacks tha more dangerous dark-side is still alive.
BIOHAZARD

Anthrax. Smallpox. Incurable and horrifying Ebola-related fevers. For two decades, while a fearful world prepared for nuclear winter, an elite team of Russian bioweaponeers begun to kill a new killing field: a bleak tract sown with powerful seeds of mass destruction by doctors who had committed themselves to creatin a biological Armageddon. Biohazard is the never-before-told story of Russia's darkest, deadliest, and most closely guarded Cold War secret.

No one knows morre about Russia's astounding experiments with biowarfare than Ken Alibek. Now the mastermind behind Russia's germ warfare effort reveals two decades of shocking breakthoughts... how Moscow's leading scientists actually reengineered hazardous microbes to make them even more virulent...the secrets behind the discovery of an invisible, untraceable new class of biological agents just for use in political assassinations...the startling story behind Russia's attempt to turn a sample of the AIDS virus into the ultimate bioweapon.

And in a chilling work of real-world intrigue. We will glance into a shadowy scientific underworld where doctors manufacture mass destruction, where witnesses to errors are silenced forever, and where ground zero is closer than we ever dare believe.

MILITARY MEDICINE IN SOVET UNION 

How it was.

History of Soviet Military Medicine in Great Patriotic War: 1941-1945. The first victims of tularemia were German panzer troops, who fell ill in such large numbers during the late summer of 1942 that Nazi campaign in southern Russia ground to a temporary halt. Thousand of Russian soldiers and civilians living ib the Volga region came down with tularemia within a week of the initial German outbreak. The Soviet high command rushed ten mobile military hospitals into the area, a sign of the extraordinary rise in the number of cases.

Most of the journal reported this as a naturally occurring epidemic but there had neve been such a widespread outbreak in Russia before. It seemed strange that so many men had first fallen sick on one side only. The opposing armies were so close together that a simultaneous outbreak was all but inevitable. Only exposure to a sudden and concentrated quantity of tularemia could explain the onslaught of infections in the German troops alone. Seventy persent of those infected came down with a pneumonic from of the disease, which could only have been caused by purposeful dissemination.

Years later, en elderly lieuntenant colonel who worked in the secret bacteriological weapons facility in the city of Kirov durin the war told that a tularemia weapon was developed in Kirov in 1941, the year before the Battle of Stalingrad. No doubt that the weapon had been used. The lesson of Stalingrad would not be forgotten by our biological warfare strategist. In the postwar years, the Soviet high command shifted its attention from battlefield deployment to "deep targets" far behind enemy lines, where there was no danger of infection one's own troops. The disease could be used as an instrument of war.

Early biological weapons work involved primitive methods. The pathogens were bred in chicken embryos or in live animals such as rats that were killed when the concentration of pathogens was highest and were liquiefied in large blenders. The liquid was then poured into explosives. The first Soviet facility used for biological warfare research was the Leningrad Military Academy. Small teams of military  and GPU scientists began to explore ways of growing significant quantities of typhus rickettsiae. By the 1930s, the Leningrad Academy had produced powdered and liquid versions of typhus, for use in a primitive aerosol. The biological weapons program soon expanded to harness other diseases. The Leningrad Military Academy sent some of its scientists and equipment one hundred miles north to the White Sea, a barren Arctic expanseflecked with tiny islands used to house political prisoners. By the mid-1930s Solovetsky Island, one of the largest, was the second major site of the Soviet biological warfare program.

THE ENZYME PROJECT            

In 1953, two young scientists, James Watson and Francis Crick, identified the shape of DNA, the genetic code that determines the behaviour of all life on earth. Over the next two decades, researcher found ways to manipulate DNA in the laboratory. They discovered that genes of separate organisms could be cloned and spliced together, a progress that opended a new frontier in the study if the behaviour and treatment of disease. In those time the russian Yury Ovchinnikov, vice president of the Soviet Academy of Science and a renowned molecular biologist.

In 1972 the Ministry of Defense to support a genetics program devoted to developing new agents for biological warfare.

In 1973 the program aimed to modernize existing biological weapons and to develop genetically altered pathogens, resistant to antibiotics and vaccines, which could be turned into powerful weapons for use in intercontinental warfare. The program was called ENZYME. The same year was found the Biopreparat. The nation's best biologists, epidemiologists and biochemists were recruited in an efford that would soon absorb to advanced program for genetically engineered weapons in the world. The Enzyme project focused on tularemia, plague, anthrax and glanders - all diseases that had been successfully weaponized by russian military scientists but whose effects had been undermined by the development of antibiotics. But there were many other agents such as smallpox, Marburg, Ebola, Machupo, Junin and VEE.

Between 1979 and 1989, the Soviet Union conducted large-scale of an aerosol containing Bacillus thuringiensis - a harmless simulant over the Novosibirsk region, using a plane with civilian markings. Similar experiments were run at a military proving ground  near the city of Nukus in the Kara Kalpak Republic and in the Caucasus.

Another harmless agent, Serratia marcescens, was used in several tests conducted by the Institute of Biological Machinery inside the Moscow Metro system during the 1980s.

BIOHAZARD SECRETS

Scientists have spent decades trying to manifacture killing agents from the venom snakes and spidersand the poisonous secretions of plants, fungi, and bacteria. Most nations with biological weapons programs, including the Soviet Union, eventually gave up on harnessing the toxins produced by living organisms. They were considered too diffiult to manufacture in the quantities required for modern warfare. In the early 1970s the Soviet government was persuaded to try again, following a remarkable discovery by a group of molecular biologists and immunologists at the Soviet Academy of Science.

The scientists had been studing peptides, strings of amino acids which perform various functions in our bodies, from regulating hormones and facilitating digestion to directing our immune system. One important group of peptides, called regulatory peptides, is activated during times of stress of heightened emotion - anger, love, fear - or to fight disease. Some regulatory peptides affect the central nervous system. When present in large quantitites, they can alter mood and trigger psyhological changes. Some can contribute to more serious adverse reactions such as heart attacks, strokes, or paralysis when overproduced. In a series of traiblalizing experiments, the scientists found a way to duplicate in the lab the genes for a handful of regulatory peptides with known toxic properties. One of these was founc capable, when present in large quantities, of damaging the myelin protecting the thounds of nerve fibers that transmit electric signals from the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body. Unknown in the West, we called in myelin toxin.

As with all peptides, it was hard to obtain enought for useful experimentation. Genetic engineering solved thisproblem: scientists could synthesize the genes that code for the production of myelin toxin, reproduce them artificially in the lab, and insert them into bacterial cells. If a bacterial strain compatible with myelin toxin could be found, the transplantated genes would multiply along with bacteria. The scientist's final argument was irresistible: weapons based on compounds produced in the human body were not prohibited by the Biological Weapons Convention. If all went as planned, the Soviet Union would soon have a new weapon, and Russian scienticts would at last be able to participate opendly in the biotechnoloogical revolution that was sweeping the world.

You can download the full book here
http://wormholetravel.net/

Laika still wants to home: honest story of the first dog astronaut

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Laika still wants to home: honest story of the first dog astronaut
I found this nice and very interesting article for people who read me. You can also to find this article here in I talk a little about it.

The dog Laika, the first living creature, having been on the Earth's orbit - our national hero. Her bold and tragic mission "Sputnik-2" when the dog became an unwitting pioneer of Soviet space program for more than 57 years ago, stuck in our collective consciousness. Her story became the basis of movies and songs, it has been immortalized in the monuments and commemorative souvenirs. Here is an honest history of the first dogs astronauts in the world.

Laika - is not the only dog-cosmonaut, who died during the Soviet space program; more than a dozen other dogs lost their lives to it. However, during the space race, fueled by the cold war, and NASA in the United States have sacrificed a few monkeys, strewn with their bones the way for people. However, several Soviet dogs astronauts  survived and returned to a relatively normal life. Left in the space behind Laika Belka and Strelka landed successfully and become true living legends in the USSR. Laika, Belka, Arrow and other popular dogs astronauts symbolized the heroism of the Soviet Union: the simple animals laid down their lives for the country's scientific achievements. Everything from stamps and envelopes and ending with children's toys, cigarette packs and cans of chocolates, were filled with images of fluffy icons.

Damon Murray, co-founder FUEL Design and Publishing in London, decided to create a book about the achievements of the Soviet dogs astronauts. He collected images using Olesya Turkina, senior researcher of the Russian Museum, wrote the text and gave it to the publishing house to his business partner Stephen Sorrell. The result was a great work of Soviet cosmonauts. Excerpts and images, we share with you in this article. On the questions raised by Collectors Weekly, posted himself Damon Murray.

As Soviet ideology influenced the Soviet space program?

Ideologically, socialism can not fail in any form; For this reason, the Soviet space program tightly kept secret. It was extremely important to keep a secret technological progress: the USSR and the US were trying to hide from each other by any events, which were prepared in secret, "surprise." Actually, it became known as the "space race."

Flying with dogs had to determine the impact of space on living organisms. No living creature as long felt not take off into space and landing on Earth or weightlessness. All this is thoroughly tested and studied by scientists of the Soviet space program, they had to determine whether or not for human spaceflight safety.

Why were choosen the dogs, but not cats or monkeys?

Dogs have historically been experimental in the USSR. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was studying them reflex system and achieved brilliant results. Monkeys are also considered to be more like a man in many ways. Dr. Oleg Gazenko, one of the leading scientists of the space program, even went to the circus to watch the famous monkeys Cappellini; in fact, he persuaded Gazenko that the monkey is very problematic creation. They were in need of intensive training and many vaccinations were emotionally unstable. (A cat does not tolerated flight conditions that later proved to be true during the French mission in 1963). It was decided: the dog will be the first astronauts.

The streets near the research center of the space program, the Institute of Aviation Medicine in Moscow, have been selected for mutts. Stray dogs were considered more resistant than purebred dogs, because they could take care of themselves in the streets. They seized on the weight and size: no more than 6 kilograms and not more than 35 centimeters.

In the beginning, the dogs were sent to a height of 100 kilometers above sea level, but not in orbit. What do we know about these suborbital missions?

Dezik and Roma were the first dogs that went to the rocket flight on July 22, 1951. Scientists were excited when the dog returned safe and sound, and fled toward the landed capsule (although it was strictly forbidden), screaming "They're alive! Alive! They bark! ". Even the head of the space program, Sergei Korolev, known as the chief designer, allowed himself to grab one of the dogs in his arms and moved. A week after this dezik died with another dog Fox when its parachute failed to open the capsule.

The exact number of flights is still unknown, but it is assumed that in the period from July 1951 to November 1960 more than 30 suborbital rockets were launched. At least 15 dogs took part in these launches, died. One lucky - Bobik - managed to escape just before the mission. He was replaced by another mongrel named Zib - these were the initials of "Replacement of the missing Bobik."

What happened with the dogs after their missions?

After a successful mission, the dog is usually used for propaganda purposes. For example, the brave dog got its name after the fourth mission. She experienced a lot of flying and became the protagonist of the popular children's book, "Tyapa, Borka and rocket" Martha Eugenia Baranova and Veltistova. Some of the dogs were taken scientists who looked after them, because there was a strong bond between humans and dogs. For example, after his last mission dog Zhulka (formerly Comet) I went home to the leading scientist Oleg Gazenko. There she lived after twelve happy years. Other dogs Belka and Strelka, like the rest of life lived in the Institute of Aviation Medicine. They were not just dogs, they were the first living creatures to visit space, celebrities, often appearing on television and radio.

These dogs were the heroes of the Soviet Union. They are valued and respected for their work for the benefit of the country and humanity as a whole. The belief in progress and the ability to self-sacrifice for a common goal became the basis of personal and public heroism, forcing Soviet citizens work wonders. For the sake of a great goal it was possible not only himself to sacrifice, but also of other living beings, who also possess such human qualities as courage and dedication.

What did the scientists and engineers of the dogs, which worked?

Differently. There are many different examples of how scientists have treated his ward. Once, when the chief designer found dog food bowls empty, he sent a guard in the prison. Perhaps this legend. The same chief designer, Sergei Korolev, whispered in her ear before-flight astronauts dog Chanterelles: "Most of all I want you to come back safely." Chanterelle died. Because of the secrecy surrounding the program, it was inconceivable that the four-legged heroes received a lavish funeral. Because scientists can not indulge in mourning. But there were exceptions. In 1955, after the death of his beloved dog Fox-2, Alexander D. Seryapin, the Institute of Aviation Medicine, has violated the rules and buried her remains in the wilderness, even secretly making a picture for memory.

Commenting on the death of Laiki in "Sputnik-2", one of the leading scientists Oleg Gazenko said that "working with animals - a source of suffering for all of us. We treat them like babies who can not speak. The more time passes, the more I regret it. We should not have to do that. We did not have learned so much during this mission to justify the death of this dog. "

As these dogs were eating and defecate on board?

The problem of feeding the dogs in conditions of weightlessness has been solved by combining nutrients with agar-agar, a jelly-like substance. This "jelly" could easily consume and to minimize waste. It was more difficult to find a convenient way dogs defecate in such unusual circumstances. Although their costumes had special vessels for urine and feces, it was difficult to train dogs to use them. They preferred to relieve themselves in the street, but it does not really in the room, not in the cabin, and, of course, not in a suit. This process was unnatural for dogs, and only selected those who adjusted to it. For orbital flights only selected knots, they are more suited to space, because they do not have hind legs bulge.

When and why did the Soviet Union beginning to publicize the experiments with space dogs?

Gnats, Linda and Baby were the first dogs, whose names were declassified and presented to the public in June 1957. They were in the uppermost layers of the atmosphere at an altitude of 110 kilometers above the Earth. The next step for the Soviet space program was the first orbital flight of a living being: Laika.

What did the scientists and engineers of the dogs, which worked?

The ideology of the space race led to the fact that not much time is left for the development of recovery before sending Laika into space. After a sensational start "Sputnik 1" on October 4, 1957, Khrushchev told the scientists that another satellite you want to run after the fast approaching fortieth anniversary of the October Revolution, 7 November 1957. "Sputnik-2" was prepared in a terrible hurry.

What was the world's reaction to the flight and death of Laika?

Laika flight caused an unprecedented love and compassion both in the USSR and in the rest of the world. People felt genuine sympathy for Laika. It is perceived as an innocent victim, caught up in the cruel millstone of the Cold War. Soviet children retold the story of Laika as a heroic creation, which it is, in principle, and was, kind and clever dog who went into space. Adults are reminded of the fate of her own. No wonder that on the bas-relief "Conquerors of Space", erected in Moscow in 1964, the image of Laika originated next to images of anonymous engineers and scientists, whose identities have not been established.

After the initial excitement that followed the launch of "Sputnik-2", the government needs to explain to the rest of the world, why Laika never return. Within seven days it was officially "alive", newspapers periodically publish reports about her health. After this period, followed by a statement that the dog lived in orbit for a week and during that time has served as a source of invaluable information about the possibility of life in space. Then it painlessly put to sleep. There were several options for an explanation of her death. Firstly, euthanasia entered remotely. Second, the food introduced euthanasia. Thirdly, on the eighth day she ran out of oxygen. In reality, due to an error in the calculation of the thermal conductivity, Laika gasped just a few hours after launch. This fact was 

discovered only in 2002 year. In the 1950s, the international press has accused the Soviet totalitarian regime and inhuman and offered to send to Khrushchev's orbit. In response, the Soviet press wrote about the hypocrisy of capitalist morality, exploitation of entire peoples in the colonies and racism. Despite all the arguments, the Soviet ideology was faced with a serious dilemma. Because to deny the death of Laika was impossible, the only viable option left to perpetuate it.

By the time of flight of Belka and Strelka, what changes were made?

Their capsule was equipped with a camera, which transmit images in real time from space to Earth. After landing, Belka and Strelka, released a documentary film about the preparation for the flight, including a live broadcast from space. The whole world watched as the Arrow of fun spinning in weightlessness until Squirrel quietly watched. Children's story "The Adventures of Belka and Strelka" accurately describes how the dogs were trained to wear tight-fitting suits, fastened by wires. They courageously endured cold and heat in the training capsule for a few days to get used to sit in close module, where they could not walk, just sit or lie down. Within the same module, they have learned to eat jelly supplied with an automatic dispenser. They spun on the carousel and learned to endure the noise of rockets, listening to his recording. They were seated on a vibrating table and forced to sleep in a brightly lit room. They even flew an airplane. But the most serious challenge for the dogs was a catapult-chair, from which they suddenly flew into space and landed by parachute. 

Initially, the mission had to fulfill Seagull and Chanterelle. But they tragically died July 28, 1960, when their rocket exploded on the launch pad. They were the best and favorite dog at the institute. Junior Lyudmila Radkevych later recalled researcher, however bright and wonderful they were, especially Chanterelle. Later, it was felt that to send into space red dog - a bad omen.

How was the flight of Belka and Strelka?

The launch with Belka and Strelka held on 19 August 1960 in 15:44:06. However, Belka and Strelka flying off container with twelve mice, insects, plants, fungi cultures, different microbes, wheat germ, peas, onions and corn. In addition, twenty-eight were cab laboratory white mice and two rats. Only after the first orbital circled was completed, the dogs began to bark. Vladimir Yazdovskiy, a leading biologist, researcher of the upper atmosphere and outer space, said that while the dogs bark, not howling, they are sure to return to Earth. A huge success was a direct television broadcast from the spacecraft, which allowed scientists to closely observe the dog in flight. But during the dog run behaved so quietly that if not for the sensors attached to their bodies, one would think that they were so. As expected, due to an overload on the rise, heart rate and breathing increased, but quickly returned to normal. Nevertheless, at the beginning of the fourth orbit Squirrel pull wire, barking and her sick. This reaction has played a key role in the subsequent decision to send a person only for a short period of orbital flight. Belka and Strelka were in flight for more than 24 hours, which allowed 

scientists to scrutinize long-term exposure to radiation and weightlessness on living organisms. On the 18-orbit, 20 August at 13:22:00, was ordered to re-entry capsule and the dogs safely landed.

What was the reaction to the return of Belka and Strelka?

After his triumphant landing they appeared on radio and television, their portraits are presented in newspapers and magazines. They were invited to a festive meeting with elected Soviet citizens. Politicians, prominent professionals, students, celebrities - everyone thought my honor to be photographed with the famous dogs. Portrait of two dogs dressed respectively in red and green suits, appeared everywhere: on chocolates, matchbooks, postcards, badges, stamps and toys.

Why the capsule were fitted with self-destruct mechanism?

The importance of advanced spacecraft technology means the inadmissibility of their falling into the hands of direct competitors of the USSR in the space race: the United States. During orbital spaceflight mission, December 1, 1960, the trajectory of re-entry module deviate from the programmed course. When the system registers the risk of landing outside the territory of the Soviet Union, onboard self-destruct mechanism has been activated. Fly Dogs and Bee, leafless Earth 17 times, were killed in this way.

What do we know about the "astronaut" Ivan Ivanovich?

Ivan was a dummy. He flew as Yuri Gagarin's predecessor, to treat a more accurate picture of the pressures on human spaceflight. He was dressed in the same orange suit, which later will put on the first cosmonaut. In his chest, abdomen and groin placed the entire spectrum of Darwinian evolution. In this "Noah's Ark", as it was called later, hiding mice, guinea pigs and a variety of microorganisms. Effects of space flight tested on these all beings.

As dogs have been immortalized, and their achievements?

The idea of creating a space of monuments to the dogs came at a time when they were first sent into space. But since the Soviet Union was focused on the future, the main symbol of the continued space program remained, and this ambition was not realized. After a person has been successfully released into space, the country's attention was completely focused on people, not on-cosmonaut dogs.The first monument to Laika in fact built in Paris in 1958. Granite column was erected in front of the Paris Dog Protection Society, in honor of the animals that gave their lives in the name of science. The inscription reads: "In honor of the first living being who has reached the space." In the column flaunts figure Laika, peering into the "Sputnik 1". In Japan, the image of Laika became the symbol of the Year of the Dog in 1958, which led to the production of a large number of souvenir Laika

Only in 2008, the 50th anniversary of Laika's flight into space, a monument appeared in Moscow. He placed in the courtyard of the Institute of Aviation Medicine, after the application of scientists who wanted to preserve the memory of the four-legged astronauts. In terms of art, this monument can hardly be called a masterpiece, although those who have known Laika say that the sculpture life-size bears a strong resemblance. Small dog standing on top of the rocket in the form of a giant open palm, aspiring to the sky. Palm sacrificial altar recalls that, in principle, not far from the truth.

As kosmosobaki influenced the opinion of the Soviet people about mongrel?

After the flight of Belka and Strelka in Soviet schools have initiated the lessons that need to be kind to the dogs on the streets; the price of food for dogs of mixed breeds on the main market in Moscow has doubled, as any pooch, but not very big, could become an astronaut. Even after the tragic flight Laiki Soviet citizens wrote letters to the government, offering himself to the role of astronauts voluntarily. Requests for permission to fly into orbit has increased after the successful landing of Belka and Strelka. Only yesterday, these mongrel scurried through the streets of Moscow, trying to find their own food supplies, and today their heroic mission completed successfully. They were ideal, and this ideal was quite a man: to sacrifice himself for the good of mankind, and if lucky, and become a hero.

What do we know about the "Bion" program?

Monkeys chose to "Bion" program due to the fact that their physical properties resemble human. Monkeys trimmed tails so that they can squeeze into capsules. Also, they were implanted into the brain electrodes. In his memoirs Gazenko Oleg, who was preparing to fly monkeys, wrote that it was impossible not to feel sorry for the monkeys, who were lying on the operating table with wires protruding from them on his shaved head. Monkeys were not very good. Last crew spent 15 days in space, from 24 December 1996 to 7 January 1997. Flight Lapicque cartoons and was organized by the Americans. By the time the Soviet Union ceased to exist, and with it ceased, and financing for the space program. After landing Cartoon died in the operating room after an adverse reaction to the anesthetic. The death marked the end of the cartoon monkey space program. The United States refused to participate further, although it was planned launch of another satellite with two monkeys. Experiments have been suspended due to public pressure and lack of resources. In 2010, a monkey Croche, a space veteran, has died at the age of 25 years. He and his fellow Ivashov stayed in space for 12 days in late 1992. He spent his last days with his offspring in the Adler Institute of Primatology and died an honorable veteran - the last monkey astronaut in Russia. However, in 2008, Roskosmos announced that monkey from Sukhumi could become the first being sent to Mars. This provocative statement provoked protests from the European Space Agency and animal protection organizations. Similar protests have arisen when the monkeys subjected to prolonged radiation offered by the program Mars 500. But now the Russian Federation does not support the idea of sending into space the higher mammals, especially dogs, and monkeys.

Perhaps Laika still wants to go home